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Sonic the Hedgehog is a Japanese video game series and media franchise created and owned by Sega. The franchise follows Sonic, an anthropomorphic blue hedgehog who battles the evil Doctor Eggman, a mad scientist. The main Sonic the Hedgehog games are platformers mostly developed by Sonic Team; other games, developed by various studios, include spin-offs in the racing, fighting, party and sports genres. The franchise also incorporates printed media, animations, a 2020 feature film, and merchandise.
The first Sonic game, released in 1991 for the Sega Genesis, was developed after Sega requested a mascot character to compete with Nintendo's mascot Mario. Its success helped Sega become one of the leading video game companies during the fourth generation of video game consoles in the early 1990s. Sega Technical Institute developed the next three Sonic games, plus the spin-off Sonic Spinball (1993). After a hiatus during the unsuccessful Saturn era, the first major 3D Sonic game, Sonic Adventure, was released in 1998 for the Dreamcast. Sega exited the console market and shifted to third-party development in 2001, continuing the series on Nintendo, Xbox, and PlayStation systems.
While Sonic games often have unique game mechanics and stories, they feature recurring elements such as the ring-based health system, level locales, and fast-paced gameplay. Games typically feature Sonic setting out to stop Eggman's schemes for world domination, and the player navigates levels that include springs, slopes, bottomless pits, and vertical loops. While Sonic and Eggman were the only characters introduced in the first game, the series would go on to have a large cast of characters; some, such as Miles "Tails" Prower, Knuckles the Echidna, and Shadow the Hedgehog, have starred in spin-offs. The franchise has crossed over with other video game franchises in games such as Mario & Sonic, Sega All-Stars, and Super Smash Bros.
Sonic the Hedgehog is Sega's flagship franchise and one of the bestselling video game franchises, grossing over $5 billion by 2014 and selling 140 million by 2016. Series sales and free-to-play mobile game downloads totaled 920 million by 2019. The Genesis Sonic games have been described as representative of the culture of the 1990s and listed among the greatest of all time. Although later games, notably the 2006 series reboot, have been criticized for a perceived decline in quality, Sonic is influential in the video game industry and is frequently referenced in popular culture. The franchise is also known for its fandom that produces unofficial media, such as fan art and fangames.
By 1990, Japanese video game company Sega wanted a foothold in the video game console market with its 16-bit console, the Sega Genesis. Sega's efforts to break into the market had been stymied by the dominance of Nintendo;[1] as such, the Genesis did not have a large install base and Nintendo did not take Sega seriously as a competitor.[2]:414 Sega of America CEO Michael Katz attempted to challenge Nintendo with the "Genesis does what Nintendon't" marketing campaign and by collaborating with athletes and celebrities to create games.[2]:405–406 These efforts did not break Nintendo's dominance, and Katz was replaced as CEO by Tom Kalinske, formerly of Mattel.[2]:423–424

Sega Enterprises president Hayao Nakayama decided Sega needed a flagship series and mascot to compete with Nintendo's Mario franchise. Nintendo had recently released Super Mario Bros. 3, at the time the bestselling video game ever. Sega's strategy had been based on porting its successful arcade games to the Genesis; however, Nakayama recognized that Sega needed a star character in a game that could demonstrate the power of the Genesis's hardware.[1] An internal contest was held to determine a flagship game,[3][4] with a specific focus on the American audience.[5] Among the various teams working on proposals were artist Naoto Ohshima and programmer Yuji Naka.[6]:20–33; 96–101 The gameplay of Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) originated with a tech demo created by Naka, who had developed an algorithm that allowed a sprite to move smoothly on a curve by determining its position with a dot matrix. Naka's prototype was a platform game that involved a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a long winding tube.[7] Sega management accepted the duo's project and they were joined by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara.[6]:20–33; 96–101[8]

After Yasuhara joined Naka and Ohshima, their focus shifted to the protagonist, who Sega hoped could become its mascot.[6]:20–33; 96–101 The protagonist was initially a rabbit able to grasp objects with prehensile ears, but the concept proved too complex for available hardware. The team moved on to animals that could roll into a ball, and eventually settled on Sonic, a teal hedgehog created by Ohshima.[1][3] Naka's prototype was then fleshed out with Ohshima's character design and levels conceived by Yasuhara.[7] Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo, and his shoes evolved from a design inspired by Michael Jackson's boots; the red and white shoe color was inspired by Santa Claus and the cover of Jackson's 1987 album Bad.[9][10] His personality was based on Bill Clinton's "can-do" attitude.[11][12][13] The antagonist, Doctor Eggman, was another character Ohshima had designed for the contest. The development team thought the abandoned design was excellent and retooled the character into a villain.[14] The team took the name Sonic Team for the game's release.[15] Sonic's first appearance came in Sega AM3's racing game Rad Mobile (1991) five months before the release of Sonic the Hedgehog, as an ornament hanging from the driver's rearview mirror. The Sonic developers let AM3 use Sonic because they were interested in getting the character visible to the public.[16]
Although Katz was certain that Sonic would not be popular with American children,[17][18] after replacing him, Kalinske arranged to place Sonic the Hedgehog as the pack-in game with the Genesis.[17][19] Featuring speedy gameplay, Sonic the Hedgehog received critical acclaim,[20][21] greatly increased the popularity of the Sega Genesis in North America,[22] and is credited with helping Sega gain 65% of the market share against Nintendo.[11] Naka was dissatisfied with his treatment at Sega and felt he received little credit for his involvement in the success. He quit but was hired by Mark Cerny to work at the US-based Sega Technical Institute (STI), with a higher salary and more creative freedom. Yasuhara also decided to move to STI.[23][22] STI began work on Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (1992) in November 1991.[23] Level artist Yasushi Yamaguchi designed Sonic's new sidekick, Tails, a flying two-tailed fox inspired by the mythological kitsune.[3] Like its predecessor, Sonic the Hedgehog 2 was a major success, but its development suffered from the language barrier and cultural differences between the Japanese and American developers.[24] While STI developed Sonic 2, Ohshima led a team in Japan to create Sonic CD for the Genesis's CD-ROM accessory, the Sega CD;[25] it was conceived as an enhanced port of Sonic 2, but evolved into a separate project.[26]

Once development on Sonic 2 concluded, Cerny departed and was replaced by Roger Hector. STI was divided into two teams: the Japanese developers led by Naka, and the American developers.[24] The Japanese began work on Sonic the Hedgehog 3.[27] Sonic 3 was initially developed as an isometric game using the Sega Virtua Processor chip, but was restarted as a more conventional side-scrolling game after the chip was delayed.[5] It introduced Sonic's rival Knuckles, created by artist Takashi Thomas Yuda.[6]:51; 233 Due to an impending promotion with McDonald's and cartridges size constraints, the project was split in two: the first half, Sonic 3, was released in February 1994, and the second, Sonic & Knuckles, a few months later.[28] The Sonic & Knuckles cartridge contains an adapter that allows players to connect it to Sonic 3, creating a combined game, Sonic 3 & Knuckles.[29] Sonic 3 and Sonic & Knuckles, as with their predecessors, were acclaimed.[30][31][32] To release a Sonic game in time for the 1993 holiday shopping season, Sega commissioned the American team to make a new game, the spin-off Sonic Spinball.[33] While Spinball received poor reviews, it sold well and helped build the reputation of its developers.[23]

A number of Sonic games were developed for Sega's 8-bit consoles, the Master System and the handheld Game Gear. The first, an 8-bit version of the original Sonic, was developed by Ancient to promote the Game Gear and released in December 1991.[34] Aspect Co. developed most of the subsequent 8-bit Sonic games, beginning with a version of Sonic 2.[35] Other Sonic games released during this period include Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine (a Western localization of the Japanese puzzle game Puyo Puyo),[36] SegaSonic the Hedgehog (an arcade game),[37] and Knuckles' Chaotix (a spin-off for the Genesis's 32X add-on starring Knuckles).[38]
Following the release of Sonic & Knuckles in 1994, Yasuhara quit Sega and Naka returned to Japan, having been offered a role as a producer.[15] He was reunited with Ohshima and brought with him Takashi Iizuka,[39] who had worked with Naka's team at STI.[27] With Naka's return, Sonic Team was officially formed as a brand.[40][41] Sonic Team began to work on a new intellectual property,[15] Nights into Dreams (1996), for Sega's 32-bit Saturn console.[42] In 1996, towards the end of the Genesis' lifecycle, Sega released Sonic 3D Blast, an isometric game based on the original Sonic 3 concept,[43] as the system still had a large install base.[44] Since Sonic Team was preoccupied with Nights, 3D Blast was outsourced to the British studio Traveller's Tales.[42] While 3D Blast sold well,[44][45] it was criticized for its gameplay, controls, and slow pace.[46][47][48]

Meanwhile, in America, STI worked on Sonic X-treme, a 3D Sonic game for the Saturn intended for the 1996 holiday shopping season. Development was hindered by disputes between Sega of America and Japan, Naka's refusal to let STI use the Nights game engine, and problems adapting the series to 3D. After two lead developers became ill, X-treme was canceled.[49][50] Journalists and fans have speculated about the impact X-treme might have had if it was released,[49][51][52] with producer Mike Wallis believing it "definitely would have been competitive" with the first 3D Mario game, Super Mario 64 (1996).[50] Due to X-treme's cancellation, Sega ported 3D Blast to the Saturn[53][54] with updated graphics and bonus levels developed by Sonic Team.[55][56]

In 1997, Sega announced "Project Sonic", a promotional campaign aimed at increasing market awareness of and renewing excitement for the Sonic brand. The first Project Sonic release was Sonic Jam, a compilation of the main Genesis Sonic games[57] which included a 3D overworld Sonic Team used to experiment with 3D Sonic gameplay.[58] Sonic Team and Traveller's Tales collaborated again on the second Project Sonic game, Sonic R,[59] a 3D racing game and the only original Sonic game for the Saturn.[60][61] Sonic Jam was well received,[62][63] while Sonic R's reviews were more divided.[64][65] The cancellation of Sonic X-treme, as well as the Saturn's general lack of Sonic games, are considered important factors in the Saturn's commercial failure.[60][66] According to Nick Thorpe of Retro Gamer, "by mid-1997 Sonic had essentially been shuffled into the background... it was astonishing to see that just six years after his debut, Sonic was already retro."[67
With its Sonic Jam experiments, Sonic Team began developing a 3D Sonic platformer for the Saturn. The project stemmed from a proposal by Iizuka to develop a Sonic role-playing video game (RPG) with an emphasis on storytelling. Development moved to Sega's new console, the Dreamcast, which Naka believed would allow for the ultimate Sonic game.[6]:65–67 Sonic Adventure, directed by Iizuka and released in 1998,[68] was one of the first sixth-generation video games.[69] It introduced elements that became series staples,[70][71] such as artist Yuji Uekawa's new character designs influenced by comics and animation.[70] In 1999, Iizuka and 11 other Sonic Team members relocated to San Francisco and established Sonic Team USA.[15] Sonic Team USA developed the more action-oriented Sonic Adventure 2 (2001).[72] Before the release, Ohshima left Sega to form Artoon.[73] While both Adventure games were well received[68] and the first sold over two million copies,[74] consumer interest in the Dreamcast quickly faded, and Sega's attempts to spur sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses.[75]

In January 2001, Sega announced it was discontinuing the Dreamcast to become a third-party developer.[76] The following December,[77] Sega released an expanded port of Sonic Adventure 2 for Nintendo's GameCube.[78] Afterward, Sonic Team USA developed the first multi-platform Sonic game, Sonic Heroes (2003), for the GameCube, Microsoft's Xbox, and Sony's PlayStation 2.[79] The game, again directed by Iizuka, was designed for a broad audience,[80] and Sonic Team revived elements not seen since the Genesis era, such as special stages and the Chaotix characters.[81] Reviews for Sonic Heroes were mixed;[82] while its graphics and gameplay were praised, critics felt it failed to address the problems of previous Sonic games, such as the camera.[83][84][85] After completing Sonic Heroes, Sonic Team USA was renamed Sega Studios USA.[15] Its next project was Shadow the Hedgehog (2005), a spin-off starring the popular Adventure 2 character Shadow.[86][87] While Shadow retains most elements from previous Sonic games, it was aimed at a mature audience and introduced third-person shooting and nonlinear gameplay.[88] Shadow the Hedgehog was panned for its level design and mature themes,[89][90] but was a commercial success, selling at least 1.59 million units.[91][92]

Sega continued to release 2D Sonic games. In 1999, it collaborated with SNK to produce Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure,[93] an adaptation of Sonic 2 for the Neo Geo Pocket Color.[94] Some SNK staff formed Dimps the following year, and developed original 2D Sonic games—Sonic Advance (2001), Sonic Advance 2 (2002), and Sonic Advance 3 (2004)—for Nintendo's Game Boy Advance (GBA).[95][96] Sonic Advance was the first original Sonic game released for a Nintendo console after Sega and Nintendo's fierce rivalry in the 1990s.[97][98] It was outsourced to Dimps because Sonic Team was understaffed with employees familiar with the GBA.[99] Dimps also developed Sonic Rush (2005) for the Nintendo DS, which uses a 2.5D perspective.[100][101] Dimps's projects received generally favorable reviews.[102] To introduce older games to new fans, Sonic Team developed two compilations, Sonic Mega Collection (2002) and Sonic Gems Collection (2005).[103] Further spin-offs included the party game Sonic Shuffle (2000),[104] the pinball game Sonic Pinball Party (2003),[105] and the fighting game Sonic Battle (2003).[106]

Franchise struggles and refocusing (2006–2012)
For the franchise's 15th anniversary in 2006, Sonic Team developed Sonic Riders,[107] Sonic the Hedgehog,[108] and a GBA port of the original Sonic.[109] Sonic Riders, the first Sonic racing game since Sonic R, was designed to appeal extreme sports fans as well as regular Sonic fans.[110][111] With a more realistic setting than previous entries, Sonic the Hedgehog—commonly referred to as Sonic '06[112]—was intended to reboot the series for seventh-generation consoles such as the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.[113][114][115] The development faced serious problems; Naka, the last of the original Sonic development team, resigned as head of Sonic Team to form Prope,[116] and the team split so work could begin on a Nintendo Wii Sonic game. According to Iizuka, these incidents, coupled with stringent Sega deadlines and an unpolished game engine, forced Sonic Team to rush development.[113] None of the 15th-anniversary Sonic games were successful critically,[117][118] and Sonic '06 became regarded as the worst game in the series, panned for its bugs, camera, controls, and story.[119][120] Brian Shea of Game Informer wrote that it "[became] synonymous with the struggles the Sonic the Hedgehog franchise had faced in recent years. Sonic ['06] was meant to be a return to the series' roots, but it ended up damning the franchise in the eyes of many."[113]

The first Sonic game for the Wii, Sonic and the Secret Rings (2007), takes place in the world of Arabian Nights and was released instead of a port of Sonic '06.[121] Citing lengthy development times, Sega switched plans and conceived a game that would use the motion detection of the Wii Remote.[122] Sega released a sequel, Sonic and the Black Knight, set in the world of King Arthur, in 2009.[123] Secret Rings and Black Night form what is known as the Sonic Storybook sub-series.[124] A Sonic Riders sequel, Zero Gravity (2008), was developed for the Wii and PlayStation 2.[125] Dimps returned to the Sonic series with Sonic Rush Adventure, a sequel to Sonic Rush, in 2007,[126] while BioWare developed the first Sonic RPG, Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood (2008), also for the DS.[127] Backbone Entertainment developed two Sonic games exclusive to the PlayStation Portable, Sonic Rivals (2006) and Sonic Rivals 2 (2007).[128][129]

Sonic Team began working on Sonic Unleashed (2008) in 2005.[130] It was conceived as a sequel to Adventure 2, but became a standalone entry after Sonic Team introduced innovations to separate it from the Adventure games.[131] With Unleashed, Sonic Team sought to combine the best aspects of 2D and 3D Sonic games and address criticisms of previous 3D entries,[132][133] although reviews were mixed.[134] Iizuka was installed as the head of Sonic Team in 2010,[135][136] and became the series' producer. Iizuka felt Sonic was struggling because it lacked unified direction,[68] so Sonic Team refocused on more traditional side-scrolling elements and fast-paced gameplay.[137] Sonic the Hedgehog 4, a side-scrolling episodic sequel to Sonic & Knuckles co-developed by Sonic Team and Dimps,[138][139] began with Episode I in 2010,[140] followed by Episode II in 2012.[141] Later in 2010, Sega released Sonic Colors for the Wii and DS, which expanded on the well received aspects of Unleashed and introduced the Wisp power-ups.[142] For the series' 20th anniversary in 2011, Sega released Sonic Generations for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Windows;[143][144] a separate version was developed by Dimps for the Nintendo 3DS.[145][146] Sonic Generations featured reimagined versions of levels from previous Sonic games and reintroduced the "classic" Sonic design from the Genesis era.[143][146] These efforts were better received, especially in comparison to Sonic '06 and Unleashed.[137]

New directions (2013–present)
In May 2013, Nintendo announced it was collaborating with Sega to produce Sonic games for its Wii U and 3DS platforms.[147] The first game in the partnership, 2013's Sonic Lost World,[147] was also the first Sonic game for eighth-generation hardware.[148] Sonic Lost World was designed to be streamlined and fluid in movement and design,[149] borrowing elements from Nintendo's Super Mario Galaxy games and the canceled X-treme.[150] The second was Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games (2013) for the Wii U, the fourth Mario & Sonic game and a 2014 Winter Olympics tie-in (see Crossovers section).[147] The deal was completed in 2014 with the release of Sonic Boom: Rise of Lyric for the Wii U and Sonic Boom: Shattered Crystal for the 3DS; these games were based on the Sonic Boom television series (see Animation section).[137][151] None of the games were well received; Sonic Lost World polarized critics,[152] while critics found Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games mediocre[153] and panned the Sonic Boom games.[137] Nonetheless, Sonic Boom: Fire & Ice, a Shattered Crystal sequel, was released in 2016.[154]

Sega began to release more Sonic games for mobile phones,[137] such as iOS and Android devices. After he developed a version of Sonic CD for modern consoles in 2011, Australian programmer Christian "Taxman" Whitehead collaborated with fellow Sonic fandom member Simon "Stealth" Thomley to develop remasters of the original Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic the Hedgehog 2 for iOS and Android, which were released in 2013.[155] The remasters were developed using Whitehead's Retro Engine, an engine tailored for 2D projects,[155] and received praise.[156][157] Sonic Dash (2013), a Temple Run-style endless runner,[158] was developed by Hardlight[159] and downloaded over 350 million times by 2020,[160] and received a Sonic Boom-themed sequel in 2015.[161] Sonic Team released Sonic Runners, its first game for mobile devices, in 2015.[162] Sonic Runners was also an endless runner,[162] but was unsuccessful[163] and discontinued a year after release.[164] Gameloft released a sequel, Sonic Runners Adventure, in 2017 to generally positive reviews.[165][166]

In a 2015 interview with Polygon, Iizuka acknowledged that contemporary Sonic games had been disappointing. He hoped, from then on, that the Sonic Team logo would stand as a "mark of quality"; he planned to release quality games and expand the Sonic brand, while retaining the modern Sonic design.[137] At the San Diego Comic-Con in July 2016, Sega announced two Sonic games to coincide with the series' 25th anniversary: Sonic Mania and Sonic Forces.[167] Both were released for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and Windows in 2017.[168][169] Sonic Mania was developed by the independent game developers PagodaWest Games and Headcannon with a staff comprising members of the Sonic fandom; Whitehead conceived the project and served as director.[170] The game, which emulates the gameplay and visuals of the Genesis entries, was hailed as a return to form for the franchise.[171][172][173] Meanwhile, Sonic Team developed Sonic Forces, which revives the dual gameplay of Sonic Generations along with a third gameplay style featuring the player's custom character.[174][175] Sonic Forces received mixed reviews,[176] with criticism for its short length.[174][177][178] At SXSW 2019, Iizuka announced that a new mainline Sonic game was in development.[179] Additionally, Sumo Digital developed a Sonic kart racing game, Team Sonic Racing (2019).[180][181][182]